WP3
Krando Nishiba
WRIT 340
Prof Tomkins
March 27, 2024
Part I: The Persistent Legacy of Colonialism and its Impact on Corruption
Corruption, an ongoing and pervasive issue in many developing countries, is the result of colonialism and the socioeconomic factors, institutions, and societal norms established during this era. Although more than 75 years have passed since the beginning of the post-colonial era, the legacy of colonialism and its impact on developing countries is clear. Such claims are supported by researchers who establish clear connections between colonialism and modern social issues, but also by authors and political philosophers providing evidence of the effects of colonialism while discussing broader social, cultural, and political consequences.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s own concepts regarding social contracts that form equitable societies allow for a critical examination of existing post-colonial societies and how they are not representative of Rousseau’s concepts. Followed by research by Angeles and Neanidishighlighting the relationship between colonial governance structures and contemporary corruption levels in developing countries, the relationship between colonialism and corruption becomes clear. The establishment of political hierarchies involving local elites created an environment that perpetuated corruption that continues to exist today. Similarly, Baldomero-Quintana et al.’s research on colonial segregation policies and modern residential demographics may be less explicit in depicting this relationship, but by connecting these findings with ongoing corruption in marginalized in Mexico, especially with electoral fraud, one can be certain that colonialism has had a lasting impact on these communities. As a result, the lasting impact of colonialism on former colonies becomes clear – corruption is the result of colonialism and its economic, political, and social influence and will continue to plague developing countries unless drastic political and economic reforms are made.
In the context of colonialism, Rousseau’s ideas of a just and equal society, as outlined in The Social Contract, are in complete conflict. Colonialism contradict the principles of the social contract – Rousseau states in Section 6 titled “The Social Compact” that “each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will,” allowing for the creation of an equitable society (Rousseau and Jimack 7). Instead of a collective agreement among citizens to form a government that protects their freedoms, colonialism establishes a political system that prioritizes the interests of the colonizers over the colonized. This, as a result, creates inequalities between the two populations regarding civil liberties and political power, with the colonized facing oppressive policies. Therefore, as countries began to colonize regions in Africa and the Americas, this social contract was manipulated to serve the economic and political interests of the colonizing country, creating a reality that was starkly different to that of Rousseau’s and highlighting the continuous impact of colonialism.
In an article for the National Bureau of Economic Research, researchers Heldring and Robinson research the impact of European colonialism on the economic development of Sub-Saharan Africa, specifically during the colonial time period labeled as the Scramble for Africa. They highlight three types of African colonies: colonies of white settlement, colonies with natives and white settlers, and areas that lacked white colonization (Heldring and Robinson 19). They specifically highlight Botswana, a mixed settlement, that would have been more developed had it not been colonized because prior to the colonial period, “Tswana elites were already reforming institutions” and demonstrated skills in negotiating with “external forces, which reproduced themselves after independence” (Heldring and Robinson 19). The authors then highlight Rwanda, which is clearly less developed, most likely due the country “suffering the most extreme example of colonial powers shaping identities” that “interacted with highly hierarchical class relations” (Heldring and Robinson 20). These hierarchies place white settlers at the top who are then followed by the local elites, creating a social structure that indoctrinates the colonized into settler political systems.
This concept of hierarchical structures are confirmed by an article for Economica by Angeles and Neanidis who state that in “all colonized countries, Europeans placed themselves at the top of the social structure,” but depending on the size of the colony, the Europeans were forced to rely “on local leaders to fill all middle and lower ranges of political and economic administration” (Angeles and Neanidis 320). As a result, their main argument centers around the idea that the “degree of European settlement determined the power of the elite in colonized countries” and that this elite has maintained their power until now and use that power to commit acts of “major corruption,” which include embezzling government funds and “mispricing government projects (Angeles and Neanidis 321). These acts are very common – Mexico’s President, Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador, was featured in an articled that “alleged that his third son…ran a network overcharging contractors supplying materials for the Tren Maya,” a tourist train system that was the focal point of the President’s campaign and legacy (The Economist). Notably, this act is just one of many examples of corruption in Mexico, where corruption is incredibly prevalent and even includes electoral fraud, further demonstrating the lasting impact of colonial-era political structures.
Other forms of colonial policies, such as segregation during the colonial period, have also had lasting effects on communities in former colonies like Mexico. In an article for William & Mary ScholarWorks, authors Baldomero-Quintana, Woo-Mora, and Rosa-Ramos provide research highlighting Mexico's enduring socio-economic disparities, such as lack of access to medical services and years of education. Their collected data demonstrates how households at the boundary of these small, rural communities, increasingly lack access to medical services while the years of school also decreases – such findings regarding disparities are confirmed by “worse urban amenities and lower land prices,” so it is clear that “colonial segregation institutions have persistent impacts for centuries” (Baldomero-Quintana et al. 5). This ongoing struggle for many Mexican households is well known – Mexico’s poverty rate has reached 50% in the last decade, but has managed to fall to 36.3% in 2022 due to social programs targeting “pensioners, young people, and farmers” (O'Boyle and Averbuch). Due to this economic disparity, the purchasing of votes is “an open secret” in communities struggling to get by. In an article for the Spanish newspaper El País, Sindy Nanclares shares the story of a resident in Mexico City who lived in a neighborhood targeted by a political party looking to purchase votes by giving away “digital tablets and crockery…all in election season” (Nanclares). Thus, the connection between contemporary electoral corruption and colonialist segregationist policies are clear – the consequences continue to impact marginalized communities.
The legacy of colonialism and corruption persist as ongoing challenges for many developing countries, proving the lasting impact of oppression on contemporary nations. Through an analysis of research by Angeles and Neanidis, Baldomero-Quintana et al., and Heldring and Robinson, among others, it becomes evident that colonialism has created the foundation for socio-economic disparities and institutionalized corruption in former colonies like Mexico. The hierarchical power structures established by colonial regimes continue to shape political and economic dynamics, facilitating elite control and perpetuating systems of exploitation and marginalization. This inherently challenges the philosophies put forth by Rousseau, who establishes that all must be equal within a society for that society to properly represent the people. As a result, with the effects of colonial-era policies, such as segregation, further exacerbating inequalities within marginalized communities, it is clear that ongoing struggles for access to essential services and persistent socio-economic disparities continue to exist. The prevalence of electoral fraud and vote-buying in these communities highlights the enduring impact of colonial-era political structures on contemporary political structures and civil rights. Ultimately, addressing the root causes of corruption and inequality requires comprehensive reforms that challenge colonial legacies and prioritize equitable development and political structures.
Part II:
The genre I chose for this writing project was an academic discourse essay, most likely to be featured in a discussion or opinion magazine published by a school department focused on politics or sociology. Since academic discourse is the foundational genre for scholarly communication and facilitates exploration and analysis of complex topics, I aimed to use this genre to explore the relationship between colonialism and corruption. This genre allows me to introduce these ideas and additional factors as a way to provide a foundation for my arguments. I was able to support my claims with evidence from existing scholarly articles and current events while also delving into other potential sources regarding political philosophy. Another possible genre could be the op-ed genre. Although not specifically formatted for the genre, the topic featured in this essay is extremely applicable to current events, especially with elections in many countries this year, such as Mexico and El Salvador. Therefore, this essay could be adapted to fit into an op-ed article for newspaper outlets and social media.
Since I focused on formatting this as academic discourse, my main goal was to write in a clear, coherent, and professional way. Clear organization, the logical progression of my idea, and the use of formal language throughout the essay is important in order to adhere to the genre. Furthermore, the use of citations from reputable sources, from journals, books, and newspapers, is very important, as well as providing the citations in MLA. Furthermore, since I was focused on using academic writing, I used a third-person perspective to maintain objectivity and structured the essay with an introduction, clear body paragraphs, and a conclusion, providing a logical framework for my argument. Each body paragraph is cohesive and focused, presenting a distinct aspect of the topic supported by evidence from scholarly sources. Citations are consistently integrated into the text following MLA style guidelines, providing evidence of my claims. Additionally, the language used throughout the essay is formal and objective, prioritizing clarity and accuracy in conveying ideas. By following the guidelines of academic discourse, I aimed to ensure the effectiveness and credibility of the essay as a scholarly work, while facilitating readability and comprehension.
Academic discourse is a versatile genre, catering to a diverse range of audiences across various contexts. In many cases, scholars, students, policymakers, and the general public interested in such topics would be the main audience. In this case, due to the topic of my essay, this would particularly appeal to scholars, students, and the general public curious about such topics. Since a lot of scholarly literature is mentioned, this paper could be featured in scholarly journals targeting other scholars or be used as an educational resource in academic settings. By engaging with scholarly research and presenting a comprehensive analysis, I aimed to contribute meaningfully to ongoing academic discussions while also shedding light on the broader implications of colonial legacies for contemporary societies. Scholars form a significant portion of the target audience for this essay. As fellow researchers and academics, they have an interest in exploring complex topics such as colonialism and how entrenched it is in many societies. By presenting original ideas and synthesizing existing literature, I sought to write an essay that provides additional scholarly discourse and prompts a further exploration into the relationship between colonialism and corruption.
Policymakers could be another important audience for this essay. As individuals tasked with shaping public policy, having a comprehensive understanding of the challenges created by colonial legacies within their countries could help benefit how they draft legislation. In countries such as Mexico, which is looking to tackle the poverty rate by creating social programs that benefit marginalized communities, this is exceptionally important since many of the representatives in their government, much like the United States, do not properly represent their communities. By highlighting the persistent impact of historical injustices on contemporary socio-political structures, the essay aims to inform legislation and possibly inform individuals who want to address corruption and promote equitable development. Furthermore, it would be great to reach a broader audience who are individuals interested in global affairs and social justice issues. By presenting complex ideas in an accessible manner and contextualizing them within real-world examples, I hope that the essay will raise awareness and foster informed dialogue among the general public. By bridging the gap between academic research and public discourse, I hope to provide a way for individuals to critically engage with issues of colonialism, corruption, and socioeconomic development. Overall, by choosing the content and presentation of the essay to cater to the needs and interests of diverse audiences, I aim to maximize its relevance within both academic and non-academic settings.
Works Cited
Angeles, Luis, and Kyriakos C. Neanidis. “The Persistent Effect of Colonialism on Corruption.” Economica, vol. 82, no. 326, 2015, pp. 319-349. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/24751963.
Baldomero-Quintana, Luis, et al. “Infrastructures of Race? Colonial Indigenous Segregation and Contemporaneous Urban Sorting.” William and Mary ScholarWorks, 2023. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/aspubs/1942.
The Economist. “Mexico's president and his family are fighting claims of corruption.” The Economist, 8 February 2024, https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2024/02/08/mexicos-president-and-his-family-are-fighting-claims-of-corruption.
Heldring, Leander, and James A. Robinson. “Colonialism and Economic Development in Africa.” National Bureau of Economic Research, 2012, pp. 1-38. National Bureau of Economic Research, https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w18566/w18566.pdf.
Nanclares, Sindy. “La compra de votos, un secreto a voces en México.” EL PAÍS, 1 July 2018, https://elpais.com/internacional/2018/07/01/mexico/1530409183_275099.html.
O'Boyle, Michael, and Maya Averbuch. “Mexico’s Poverty Rate Falls to 36.3% in 2022 From 43.9% in 2020.” Bloomberg, 10 August 2023, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-10/mexico-s-poverty-rate-down-to-36-3-in-2022-from-43-9-in-2020?embedded-checkout=true.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, and P. D. Jimack. The Social Contract and Discourses. Edited by John Cecil Hall, translated by G. D. H. Cole, Everyman Paperback, 1993.