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Part I - Annotated Bibliography:
Angeles, Luis, and Kyriakos C. Neanidis. “The Persistent Effect of Colonialism on Corruption.” Economica, vol. 82, no. 326, 2015, pp. 319-349. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/24751963.
This journal article focuses on the relationship between colonialism and corruption in developing countries and argues that in order to understand corruption, research into the countries’ history is necessary, especially the colonial time period. The authors argue that previously, researchers have failed to properly analyze this relationship because they have not taken into consideration how European settlements differed across different regions, such as how the British ruled over their colonies compared to the French, Spanish, or Portuguese. As a result, they argue that the amount of European influence in the colony later influenced corruption by shaping the power of local elites who were native to that colony. Therefore, they believe that if natives to the region gain power and become local elites, they are more likely to participate in corruption due to the lack of proper prosecution. The results of the authors’ research supports the hypothesis even when taking into consideration factors like economic development. The paper could have included information about specific countries that had been colonized, not just who ruled over those colonies, because it would have provided specific contextual information for research. Regardless, the paper contributes to broader research about how corruption develops over time, especially in developing countries, and highlights how colonialism continues to affect those countries’ todays.
Baldomero-Quintana, Luis, et al. “Infrastructures of Race? Colonial Indigenous Segregation and Contemporaneous Urban Sorting.” William and Mary ScholarWorks, 2023. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/aspubs/1942.
In this journal article, the authors research how colonial segregation policies have affected the development of residential areas in developing countries. The authors use the boundaries of pueblos de indios, towns created during Spanish-control over Mexico, to segregate the natives. The authors argue that these historical policies and these towns continue to affect the residential makeup of each city and its demographics. Using statistics, the article provides evidence that this form of colonial segregation has continued to impact households, especially in remote regions, and has affected their access to vital city services, such as healthcare, electricity, and water. Throughout the paper, the authors present great information and, due to its use of historical town boundaries, demonstrates a clear correlation between these boundaries and current demographics, the land value, and access to services. It is important to note that the article does not include any information or data after colonialism through the 20th century– therefore, it does not take into consideration the political changes that occurred in Mexico, such as a dictatorship, a revolutionary war, and political and economic reform. Overall, this paper provides great insight into the effect of colonial segregationist policies and how it has impacted communities today, especially land values and population.
Chasteen, John Charles. “Chapter 3: Independence,” Born in blood and fire : a concise history of Latin America. W.W. Norton & Company, 2006.
In this book, Chasteen focuses on the history of Latin America while this chapter specifically includes information about the independence movements in Latin America. The main points made in the chapter are that the local elite used nativism and then subsequent challenges faced by these newly independent countries. Regarding nativism, Chasteen uses Creole leaders during the Haitian Revolution as an example of how they, among other local elites in Latin American colonies, sought independence to be able to self-rule instead of actually wanting to instill equality within society. In Mexico, for example, the governing leaders wanted independence because they did not want to be reigned over by the Spanish monarchy. As a result, they risked losing control over the indigenous population by recruiting them for the revolution against the Europeans. When Chasteen begins to highlight the challenges after independence, he notes that the culture and society within the former colonies remained the same. Social hierarchies continued to exist along with gender inequality and exploitation of laborers. Overall, a weakness would be that since it is a book, the arguments presented are not supported with citations nor is a counter argument presented, but it does provide clear historical examples and presents how the revolutions began and ended while providing insight into how independence impacted the former colonies.
Fang, Hanming, and Peter Norman. “Government-Mandated Discriminatory Policies: Theory and Evidence.” International Economic Review, vol. 47, no. 2, 2006, pp. 361-389. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3663509.
In this article, the authors are researching whether discriminatory economic policies targeting minority groups have a negative or positive effect on the target minority. Throughout the article, the researchers highlight certain minority groups, such as the Chinese in Southeast Asia, Jews in Europe, African Americans during the Jim Crow South, and Black South Africans during apartheid. In the study, the researchers focused on including policies that did not allow minorities to have a job in the public sectors – they do argue that, as a result, minorities then increase their skills that apply to jobs in the private sector, limiting the disparity between wages between the two groups of people. Using the Southeast Asian population in the United States today and the Jewish population in Europe prior to World War II, it is clear that their investment in skills for the private sector has allowed them to create and invest in businesses that make them more successful than their majority counterparts. However, in countries such as South Africa during the apartheid and the American South during the Jim Crow Era, minority communities were disproportionately negatively affected by such policies. For example, the schools and universities for minorities were severely underfunded, the communities lacked proper infrastructure, and economic opportunities such as jobs or business opportunities were scarce – these factors have created a lasting impact on these communities that still affect them today. Overall, the article provides new information as to how discriminatory employment and economic policies can affect minority populations and whether it has a positive or negative effect - the result of these policies depends on the country and the societal context. However, the article does tend to oversimplify contextual information that would be useful for the reader when reading the results. Nonetheless, it provides valuable information that is still applicable today.
Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Translated by Richard Philcox, Grove Press, 2004.
In The Wretched of the Earth, Frantz Fanon focuses on the post-colonial world and the sociopolitical impacts of colonization on each former colony. Fanon focuses the psychology behind racism and its effect on the colonial and post-colonial world. He identifies two distinct groups within a colony: the “ruling species,” which are the colonizers, and the indigenous population, the colonized. Furthermore, he argues that the colonized, according to the colonists, have no values or ethics and their culture and traditions are seen as evil. Overall, this book is a great text that provides clear examples, especially about Algeria, about how colonialism has completely changed the social and economic possibilities of former colonies – this examination was most likely the first of its kind when the book was originally published. One potential point for criticism is that Fanon places a lot of emphasis on using violence to seek liberation – although it is important to note that Fanon was from Martinique, a former French colony, so his experience of living in a former colony certainly influenced his perspective. Otherwise, his book is a great introduction into the sociopolitical and psychological effects of colonialism and is seen as a seminal piece that inspired many leaders.
Greer, Thomas H. A Brief History of Western Man. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972.
In this book, Thomas Greer talks about several Western civilizations, one of which is France. In one of the chapters, he focuses on the French Revolution, including the historical context, causes, and consequences. Throughout the chapter, he mentions the ideals of “liberty, equality, and fraternity,” a saying still used today while also talking about the changes in social and economic structures of France. The text is very comprehensive and provides clear depictions of the dynamics within the country that led to the revolution, specifically the interactions and relationships between the different social classes and their motivations. Then, Greer goes into depth about the creation of the different Estates and the National Assembly, a government structure that would soon be replaced. Since the book does cover most western civilizations, some of the descriptions for factors leading to the revolution feel a bit condensed. Overall, this specific chapter about the French Revolution is a great introduction to the topic to later study in other forms of media – the explanation of the different governments created during and after the revolution, causes, and significant individuals of the time period.
Grossman, Sara. “The Other Wealth Gap: The Racial Wealth Rift No One is Talking About | Othering & Belonging Institute.” Othering & Belonging Institute, https://belonging.berkeley.edu/other-wealth-gap-racial-wealth-rift-no-one-talking-about.
In this article for a UC Berkeley institute, the author talks about hte wealth gap in America, specifically the racial wealth gap. Grossman argues that while the economic gap between the upper class and middle class is the most referenced when talking about the gap, the wealth disparities between people of color and their white counterparts are usually not discussed. Her argument notes two different types of wealth: survival-oriented wealth and transformative wealth. She notes that people of color usually have survival-oriented wealth, which is usually when the family has enough to pay for necessities. On the other hand, their white counterparts usually have transformative wealth, which is wealth that builds wealth through investments, allowing them to fund large purchases of homes or funding their childs’ college education. The text cites several sources, including Thomas Piketty, a renowned economist, providing sources to present the relationship between race, policies, and current economic and wealth disparities. A potential weakness could be the length of the article itself – it is a subject that requires context and specificity, so the length of the article could be determine its effectiveness. Regardless, the article is able to present a concise, well-describe argument regarding the racial wealth gap in the United States.
Heldring, Leander, and James A. Robinson. “Colonialism and Economic Development in Africa.” National Bureau of Economic Research, 2012, pp. 1-38. National Bureau of Economic Research, https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w18566/w18566.pdf.
In this article, the researchers look at how European colonialism has impacted the development of Sub-Saharan Africa. The Scramble for Africa is the main time period that the researchers focus on because, even though colonialism is not just exclusive to European countries, with countries such as China and the Ottomans creating vast empires, colonialism in Africa has been debated due to formal colonies not being formally established. During the Scramble for Africa, European countries divided the continent up using boundaries that did not follow cultural, ethnic, or pre-established boundaries. Furthermore, although some European countries chose to establish a former colony, others chose instead to use mandates to maintain power and influence over the region. The impact of the disregard for pre-existing cultural and physical boundaries as well as the implementation of foreign political and societal structure is studied throughout the article. It is important to note that the authors do highlight a certain weakness, which is the fact that being able to create convincing research is difficult due to the lack of counter-arguments. However, there are different views as to what is classified as colonialism. Overall, the article is well-researched, provides valuable information, and presents a clear argument as to how Africa was impacted by colonialism.
Kendi, Ibram X. How to Be an Antiracist. Random House Publishing Group, 2019.
Marx, Karl. Estranged Labor. Marxists Internet Archives, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/manuscripts/labour.htm.
This book provides real-world examples based on the author’s personal experiences of racism that led to him becoming an antiracist advocate. The main purpose of the book is to redefine how non-Black readers view racism and present the idea of antiracism as an active and intentional commitment to getting rid of systemic inequalities. Throughout the book, the use of personal anecdotes while providing historical and sociopolitical analysis of American society allows the reader to get a thorough understanding of how racism is deeply ingrained into society’s structures. With such evidence and context, it is evident that it is a strong text, especially for researchers looking to get a better understanding of racist experience. Although the book does call for self-reflection, making it a more challenging read for some, it is still a thorough, thought-provoking book.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, and P. D. Jimack. The Social Contract and Discourses. Edited by John Cecil Hall, translated by G. D. H. Cole, Everyman Paperback, 1993.
These essays serve as foundational political philosophy texts that explore the nature of political authority and the formation of a just and equal society. Rousseau argues for the establishment of a social contract, which is a collective agreement among citizens to create a government that serves its citizens and protects their freedoms. Throughout the essays, Rousseau describes the relationship between civil liberties and political authority by using historical examples, such as the transition from hunter-gatherers to formal civilizations. As a result, this text is well-known for its ideas and how it has shaped democracy and defined the role of citizens. However, it is vague at some points throughout the text especially when Rousseau provides ideas on how to implement his ideas. Despite the vagueness, this text is the foundation of political philosophy.
Sguazzin, Antony. “South Africa Wealth Gap Unchanged Since Apartheid, Group Says.” Time, 5 August 2021, https://time.com/6087699/south-africa-wealth-gap-unchanged-since-apartheid/.
In this article, the author presents that despite the political changes after apartheid, South Africa remains as the most economically unequal society with 3,500 people owning more than 32 million people in the country. Based on other research done, this is the result of decades of oppression and systemic racism against minorities, but despite the South African government’s efforts to address this, they have not succeeded in alleviating this inequality. The article provides data from the World Inequality Lab report and focuses on the ongoing challenges in addressing these disparities, but fails to provide a more in-depth analysis of potential solutions on how to address wealth inequality. It is also important to note that it only takes into consideration wealth inequality and does not consider race – based on other research done, race most likely plays a role in wealth inequality in the country. Overall, the article is a great introduction to the topic while providing enough context to develop a better understanding about the topic while also providing additional sources to learn more.
Part II - Discussion
When choosing the sources, the main theme was to explore the historical, theoretical, and scientific aspects related to the consequences of colonial rule. First, by providing political philosophical ideas, in this case by Rousseau, it provides context for the creation of a state and how that influences how colonies are governed over. Then, using Rousseau as the foundation of the argument, research into governments, political ideologies, and revolutions based on these ideas is necessary to understand why, in this case, revolutions occur when the social contract is violated. In the case of nations that are former colonies of European nations, decades, even hundreds of years, of the systemic oppression of the natives ultimately led to the “social contract” being violated and subsequent independence movements. After taking these ideas and texts into consideration, it then becomes easier to understand how colonialism has continued to have a negative impact on these former colonies.
Beginning with the article by Angeles and Neanidis, this article reveals how colonialism plays a role in ongoing corruption in developing countries. The authors presented a strong argument that in order to understand corruption, then it is necessary to understand the colonial history of the nations, highlighting the need to consider colonial history along with contemporary factors. Then, the Baldomero-Quintana et al. article researches how colonial segregation policies have continued to shape residential areas and demographics in a former colony such as Mexico. The main finding, which was that the historical boundaries created during Spain’s rule over Mexico, continue to exist as these areas lack access to vital services compared to neighborhoods in large cities. Therefore, despite its limitation in not considering post-colonial political changes, this article, combined with the information in the Angeles and Neanidis article, creates a deeper understanding of how colonialism continues to have an economic, political, and social effects on developing countries.
Moving on to economic impacts specifically, there are multiple articles about wealth disparity, decreased economic development, and discriminatory economic policies that provide information about how these factors are negative consequences of colonialism. In the Time article by Sguazzin, it is clear that despite attempts at passing economic reform, discriminatory economic policies, such as those highlighted in Fang and Norman’s research, have impacted the economic potential of most of South Africa’s population. However, Fang and Norman’s research does provide the counterargument that such economic policies only impacts minority populations seeking employment in the public sector, causing these individuals to develop their skills that will undoubtedly help them succeed in the private sector.
In the case of South Africa, it is clear that racism and inequality was so deeply ingrained into society and institutions, so Fang and Norman’s argument is not particularly applicable – it is in this case that Frantz Fanon’s text should be taken into consideration. Providing a theoretical perspective, The Wretched of the Earth emphasizes the psychological and socio political impacts of colonialism, which could be then supported by Heldring and Robinson’s article about how colonialism has impacted economic development in Africa.
The topic of colonialism and its impact on its former colonies has now developed into something much greater when taking into consideration philosophical, historical, and scientific texts. Initially, the sources mostly focused on historical events and analysis while taking into consideration modern challenges that former colonies face. However, it became clear that using personal anecdotes, such as Kendi’s, and citing political philosophical ideas would be able to provide a stronger foundation for the main topic.
After the sources were chosen, it became clear that colonialism was not just about having political and economic power over a region – it also had a significant impact due to economic disparities and discriminatory policies put into place during colonial rule. These factors have now had profound psychological and socio-political consequences, so the relationship between these factors and colonialism is apparent. The evolution of this idea recognizes that colonialism not only persists in political structures, in this case a government, but also economic systems and societal norms. As a result, these sources would provide a strong foundation for an informational argumentative essay that would best serve to communicate these findings and the main argument.Additional Sources
Acemoglu, Daron. “The economic impact of colonialism.” CEPR, 30 January 2017, https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/economic-impact-colonialism.
Butt, Mirha. “Beyond the Raj: How British Colonialism Continues to Impact Human Rights in India | LSE Human Rights.” LSE Blogs, 12 July 2023, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/humanrights/2023/07/12/beyond-the-raj-how-british-colonialism-continues-to-impact-human-rights-in-india/.
Gershon, Livia. “How Global Colonialism Shaped Segregation.” JSTOR Daily, 21 May 2018, https://daily.jstor.org/how-global-colonialism-shaped-segregation/.
Gottheil, Fred M. “On an Economic Theory of Colonialism.” Journal of Economic Issues, vol. 11, no. 1, 1977, pp. 83-102. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4224567.
Raekeeta, Smallwood, et al. “Understanding the Impact of Historical Trauma Due to Colonization on the Health and Well-Being of Indigenous Young Peoples: A Systematic Scoping Review.” Journal of Transcultural Nursing, vol. 32, no. 1, 2020. SageJournals, https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659620935955.
Samuel-Mbaekwe, Iheanyi J. “Colonialism and Social Structure.” Transafrican Journal of History, vol. 15, 1986, pp. 81-95. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/24328608.
United Nations Human Rights. “Racism, discrimination are legacies of colonialism | OHCHR.” United Nations Human Rights - Office of the High Commissioner, https://www.ohchr.org/en/get-involved/stories/racism-discrimination-are-legacies-colonialism.
University of Zurich. “The Social Impact of Colonialism | World Development | UZH.” World Development, 2023, https://www.worlddevelopment.uzh.ch/en/research/impa/socim.html.